Part 1
Using Proper
Capitalization
1. Always start a sentence with a
capital letter. Unless
you're an avant-garde poet or you're starting a sentence with a brand name like
"wikiHow" or "iPod," you will need to capitalize the first
letter of every sentence.
- Here is an example of proper capitalization at the beginning of a sentence:
She invited her friend over after
school.
2. Use capital letters to start proper
nouns and titles. In addition
to starting sentences, capital letters should also occur at the start of proper
nouns and titles. Proper nouns are the names of specific people, places, and
things. Titles, which are a type of proper noun, are the names of works of art
(books, movies, plays, etc.), institutions, geographical areas, and much more.
Titles can also be honorifics (Her Majesty, Mr. President, etc.).
- Titles and proper nouns consisting of more than one word should have every word capitalized, except for small words and articles like "the," "an," "and," etc. The first word of a title should always be capitalized (with the above "brand name" exception).
- Here are a few examples of capital letters being used for proper nouns and titles:
Genghis Khan quickly became
the most powerful man in Asia, if not the world.
In her opinion, Queen Roberta's
favorite museum in the world is the Smithsonian, which she visited
during her trip to Washington, D.C., last year.
3. Use capital letters for acronyms. An acronym is a word (or a
"coined" word) formed from the first letter of every word in a long proper
noun or title. Acronyms are frequently used to shorten long proper nouns that
would be awkward to reprint in their entirety every time they are mentioned.
Sometimes the letters of an acronym are separated by periods.
- Here is an example of acronyms made from capital letters:
The CIA and the NSA
are just two of the USA's many intelligence agencies.
1. Use a
period (full stop) to end declarative sentences and statements. Also after
initials, as in Alfred D. Smith. Every sentence contains at least one
punctuation mark -- the one at its end. The most common of these
sentence-ending punctuation marks is the period (".", also called a
"full stop"). This simple dot is used to mark the end of a sentence
that is declarative. Most sentences are declarative. Any sentence that
states a fact or describes or explains an idea is declarative.
- Here is an example of a period (full stop) being used correctly at the end of a sentence:
The accessibility of the computer
has increased tremendously over the past several years.
2. Use a question mark to end
questions. The
question mark ( "?" ) used at the end of a sentence denotes an
interrogative sentence -- basically, a question. Use this punctuation mark at
the end of any question, query, or inquiry.
- Here is an example of a question mark being used correctly at the end of a sentence:
What has humanity done about the
growing concern regarding global warming?
3. Use an exclamation point to end
exclamatory sentences. The exclamation point ("!", also called an "exclamation
mark" or "shout mark") suggests excitement or strong emphasis.
The exclamation point is used to end exclamations -- short expressions of
intense emotion that are often only one word long.
- Here are two examples of an exclamation point being used correctly at the end of a sentence:
I can't believe how difficult the
exam was!
Eek! You scared me!
Using Commas
1. Use a comma to indicate a break or
pause within a sentence. The comma (",") is a very versatile punctuation mark. There are
dozens of situations that might require the use of a comma. One frequent case
is the appositive -- a break within a sentence that supplements and adds
information to the subject.
- Here is an example of commas being used to create a break in a sentence:
Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft, is the
developer of the operating system known as Windows.
2. Use a comma when listing three or
more items in a series. A common use of commas is to separate items that are being listed in a
sequence. Usually commas are written between each of the items and between the
second-to-last item and a subsequent conjunction.
- However, many writers omit the comma before the conjunction (called a serial comma or "Oxford comma"), as conjunctions like "and" will signal the end of the list even without the final comma.
- Here are two examples of commas used in listed series -- one with an Oxford Comma and one without.
The fruit basket contained apples,
bananas, and oranges.
The computer store was filled with
video games, computer hardware and other electronic paraphernalia.
3. Use a comma to separate two or more
adjectives describing a noun. Sometimes consecutive adjectives are used to describe
a single subject with multiple qualities. This use of commas is similar to
using them to separate items in a series, with one exception: it is incorrect
to place a comma after the final adjective.
- Here are examples of correct and incorrect comma usage when it comes to separating adjectives:
CORRECT: The powerful, resonating
sound caught our attention.
INCORRECT: The powerful,
resonating, sound caught our attention.
4. Use a comma to separate a larger
geographical area from a smaller one located within it. Specific geographical places or
areas are usually named by starting with the smallest location's name and then
proceeding to the larger area. For instance, you might refer to a specific city
by naming the city itself, followed by the state or province it is in, followed
by the surrounding country. Each geographic name (except the last) is followed
by a comma. Note that a comma is used after the last (largest)
geographical area if the sentence continues.
- Here are two examples of correct comma usage when it comes to naming geographical areas:
I am originally from Hola, Tana
River County, Kenya.
Los Angeles, California, is one of
the largest cities in the United States.
5. Use a comma to separate an
introductory phrase from the rest of the sentence. An introductory phrase (which is
usually one or more prepositional phrases) briefly introduces the sentence and
provides context but is not part of the sentence's subject or predicate.
Therefore, it should be separated from the main clause by a comma.
- Here are two examples of sentences with introductory phrases separated from the rest of the sentence by commas:
After the show, John and I went out
to dinner.
On the back of my couch, my cat's
claws have slowly been carving a large hole.
6. Use a comma to separate two
independent clauses. Having two
independent clauses in a sentence simply means that you could split the
sentence into two shorter sentences while preserving the original meaning. If
your sentence contains two independent clauses that are separated by a
conjunction (such as and, as, but, for, nor,
so, or yet), place a comma before the conjunction.
- Here are two examples of sentences containing independent clauses:
Ryan went to the beach yesterday,
but he forgot his sunscreen.
Water bills usually rise during the
summer, as people are thirstier during hot and humid days.
7. Use a comma when making a direct
address. When
calling one's attention by saying his/her name at the start of a sentence,
separate the person's name from the rest of the sentence with a comma. Note
that this comma is somewhat rare in writing, because this is something normally
done while speaking. It's more common for a writer to employ other methods to indicate
who is speaking to whom.
- Here is an example of a direct address:
Amber, could you come here for a
moment?
8. Use a comma to separate a direct
quotation from the sentence introducing it. A comma should occur after the word immediately
preceding a quotation that is being introduced with context or a description.
On the other hand, it is not necessary to use a comma before an indirect
quote (where you are paraphrasing someone's words without quoting them
exactly). Additionally, a comma is usually not necessary if you are not quoting
an entire statement, but only a few words from it.
- Here is an example of a direct quotation that requires a comma:
While I was at his house, John
asked, "Do you want anything to eat?"
- Here is an example of an indirect quotation that does not require a comma:
While I was at his house, John asked
me if I wanted anything to eat.
- Here is an example of a partial direct quotation, which, due to its brevity and its use within the sentence, does not require a comma:
According to the client, the lawyer
was "lazy and incompetent."
Using Colons and
Semicolons
1. Use a semicolon to separate two
related but independent clauses. The proper use of a semicolon is similar, but not
identical, to that of a comma. The semicolon marks the end of one independent
clause and the start of another within a single sentence. Note that, if the two
clauses are very wordy or complex, it is better to use a period (full
stop) and form two sentences instead.
- Here's an example of a semicolon being used correctly:
People continue to worry about the
future; our failure to conserve resources has put the world at risk.
2. Use a semicolon to separate a
complex series of items. Usually, the items in a series are separated by commas, but for cases in
which one or more items require comment or explanation, semicolons can be used
in conjunction with commas to keep the reader from becoming confused. Use
semicolons to separate items and their explanations from one another. To
separate an item from its own explanation, use a comma.
- Here's an example of semicolons being used correctly in a list whose meaning might otherwise be ambiguous:
I went to the show with Jake, my
close friend; his friend, Jane; and her best friend, Jenna.
3. Use a colon to introduce a list. Be careful, however, not to use a
colon when stating an idea that requires naming a series of items. The
two are similar, but distinct. Often the sentence-ending words "the
following" or "as follows" will call for the use of a colon when
they are followed by new, explanatory information.
- Here's an example of a colon being used correctly in this fashion:
The professor has given me three
options: to retake the exam, to accept the extra credit assignment, or to fail
the class.
- Here, on the other hand, is an incorrect example:
The Easter basket contained: Easter
eggs, chocolate rabbits, and other candy. In this case you would simply omit the colon.
4. Use a colon to introduce a new
concept or example. Colons can
also be used after a descriptive phrase or explanation to imply that the next
piece of information will be the thing being described or explained. It can
help to think of this as introducing a list containing only one item.
- Here's an example of a colon being used properly in this way:
There's only one person old enough
to remember that wedding: grandma.
5. Use a colon to separate parts of a
title. Some works
of art, particularly books and movies, can have long, subdivided titles. In
these cases, what follows the main title is called a subtitle. Use
colons to separate them.
- Here's an example of colons being used in this way to subdivide lengthy titles:
Fred's favorite movie was The Lord of the Rings: The
Fellowship of the Ring, though Stacy preferred its sequel, The Lord of
the Rings: The Two Towers.
Part 5
1. Use a
hyphen when adding a prefix to some words. The purpose of this hyphen is to
make the word easier to read. For instance, if you were to leave the hyphen out
of the word re-examine, it would be reexamine, where the double
"e" could be confusing. Many words do not require a hyphen to
separate the prefix from the word, such as restate, pretest, and undo.
Let a dictionary be your guide for when to use the hyphen after a prefix.
- Here's an example of good hyphen usage:
Cara is his ex-girlfriend.
2. Use hyphens when creating compound
words from several smaller words. If you've ever written about anything that's
gold-plated, radar-equipped, or one-size-fits-all, you've used a hyphen in this
way. To build a long, descriptive word out of two or more component words, use
hyphens to separate the "pieces" from each other.
- Here's an example of a hyphen used to build a compound word:
The up-to-date newspaper reporters
were quick to jump on the latest scandal.
3. Use a hyphen when writing numbers
out as words. Separate
the two words of any number under one hundred with a hyphen. Be careful with
spelling out numbers above one hundred — if the number is used as an adjective,
it is completely hyphenated, since all compound adjectives are hyphenated. (This
is the one-hundredth episode). Otherwise, a hyphen should occur only if a
number lower than 100 is embedded within a larger number, e.g., He lived to
be one hundred twenty-one.
- Don't use "and" when writing numbers, as in "The amount is one hundred and eighty." This is a common error in the US and Canada, where the "and" is usually omitted. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world, however, the "and" can be included.
- Here are two examples of hyphens being used in numbers below and above one hundred, respectively:
There are fifty-two playing cards in
a deck.
The packaging advertised one
thousand two hundred twenty-four firecrackers, but it contained only one
thousand.
4. Use a dash when making a brief
interruption within a statement. The dash ("--" or "—") is
slightly longer than the hyphen and is used to convey a sudden change of
thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic qualification within a sentence.
It can also be used to add a parenthetical statement for further clarification,
but this should still be relevant to the sentence. Otherwise, use parentheses.
Keep in mind that the rest of the sentence should still flow naturally as if
the dashed material were not there.
- To judge whether a dash is appropriate, try to remove the words between the dashes. If the sentence appears disjointed or does not make sense, you may need to revise it instead of using the dashes.
- There should be spaces before and after a dash in British English.
- Here are two examples of proper dash usage:
An introductory clause is a brief
phrase that comes — yes, you guessed it — at the beginning of a sentence.
This is the end of our sentence — or
so we thought.
5. Use a hyphen to split a word between
two lines. Though this
use is not as common today, the hyphen ("-") was once a common
punctuation mark on typewriters, used when a long word had to be split between
two lines. This system is still seen in some books, but the justification
capacity of computer word processing programs has made this rarer.
- Here's an example of a hyphen being used to split a word that's cut into two pieces by a line break:
No matter what he tried, he just
couldn't get the novel's elec-
trifying surprise ending out of his head.
trifying surprise ending out of his head.
